Direct optogenetic activation of skeletal muscle offers an alternative to invasive electrical stimulation. Knapman et al. tested the ability of adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV9 and AAVMYO) to confer light sensitivity to upper airway muscles in a model of obstructive sleep apnea. The image shows robust opsin expression (orange) in axial sections from the anterior and middle regions of a rat tongue 3 weeks after intramuscular AAV9 delivery. Image credit: Fiona L. Knapman.
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